What’s the function of kidney? 胰腺的功能是什么?
Most people know that a major function of the kidneys （肾 /ˈkɪd.ni/）is to remove waste products and excess fluid from the body. These waste products and excess fluid are removed through the urine （尿液/ˈjʊr.in/). The production of urine involves highly complex steps of excretion （排泄 /ɪkˈskriː.ʃən/ ）and re-absorption. This process is necessary to maintain a stable balance of body chemicals.
大多数人都知道肾脏的主要功能是排出体内的废物和多余的液体。这些废物和多余的液体通过尿液排出。尿的产生涉及排泄和再吸收的高度复杂的步骤。这个过程对于维持体内化学物质的稳定平衡是必要的。
The critical regulation of the body’s salt, potassium （钾/pəˈtæs.i.əm/）and acid content is performed by the kidneys. The kidneys also produce hormones that affect the function of other organs. For example, a hormone produced by the kidneys stimulates red blood cell production. Other hormones produced by the kidneys help regulate blood pressure and control calcium metabolism （新陈代谢/məˈtæb.əl.ɪ.zəm/）.
人体盐、钾和酸含量的关键调节是由肾脏完成的。肾脏也产生影响其他器官功能的激素。例如，肾脏产生的一种激素刺激红细胞的产生。肾脏产生的其他激素有助于调节血压和控制钙代谢。
The kidneys are powerful chemical factories that perform the following functions:
remove waste products from the body
remove drugs from the body
balance the body’s fluids
release hormones that regulate blood pressure
produce an active form of vitamin D that promotes strong, healthy bones
control the production of red blood cells （from kidney.org）
肾脏是强大的化学工厂，执行以下功能:
排出体内的废物
将药物从体内排出
平衡体液
释放调节血压的激素
产生一种能促进骨骼强壮健康的活性维生素D
控制红细胞的产生
Ureter: 输尿管 /jʊˈriː.t̬ɚ/
uterus 子宫 /ˈjuː.t̬ɚ.əs/
Ovary 卵巢/ˈoʊ.vər.i/
Urethra 尿道 /jʊˈriː.θrə/
What is a kidney stone? And its causes? 什么是肾结石以及其成因？
A kidney stone is a hard object that is made from chemicals in the urine. There are four types of kidney stones: calcium oxalate （草酸钙结石）， uric acid （尿酸结石）, struvite （感染性结石）, and cystine （胱氨酸结石）. The most common type of kidney stone is a calcium oxalate stone.
肾结石是一种由尿液中的化学物质构成的坚硬物体。肾结石有四种类型:草酸钙、尿酸、感染性结石和胱氨酸。最常见的肾结石是草酸钙结石.
Urine has various wastes dissolved in it. When there is too much waste in too little liquid, crystals begin to form. The crystals attract other elements and join together to form a solid that will get larger unless it is passed out of the body with the urine. Usually, these chemicals are eliminated in the urine by the body’s master chemist: the kidney. In most people, having enough liquid washes them out or other chemicals in urine stop a stone from forming. The stone-forming chemicals are calcium, oxalate, urate（尿酸盐）, cystine, xanthine（黄嘌呤）, and phosphate （磷酸盐）.
尿液中溶解着各种废物。当肾内太少的液体中有太多的废物时，晶体就开始形成。这些晶体吸引其他元素并结合在一起形成固体，除非它随尿液排出体外，否则会变得更大。通常，这些化学物质会在尿液中被人体的主要化学物质——肾脏——排出。对大多数人来说，有足够的液体可以冲洗掉结石，或者尿液中的其他化学物质可以阻止结石的形成。形成石头的化学物质有钙、草酸盐、尿酸盐、胱氨酸、黄嘌呤和磷酸盐。
After it is formed, the stone may stay in the kidney or travel down the urinary tract into the ureter. Sometimes, tiny stones move out of the body in the urine without causing too much pain. But stones that don’t move may cause a back-up of urine in the kidney, ureter （输尿管）, the bladder（膀胱）, or the urethra（尿道）. This is what causes the pain. (from kidney.org)
结石形成后，可能留在肾脏或沿着尿道进入输尿管。有时，微小的结石会随尿液排出体外，而不会引起太大的疼痛。但不移动的结石可能会导致肾脏、输尿管、膀胱或尿道中的尿液潴留。这就是导致疼痛的原因。
What are the symptoms of kidney stones? 肾结石有什么症状？
You may not have symptoms until the stones move down the tubes (ureters) through which urine empties into your bladder. When this happens, the stones can block the flow of urine out of the kidneys.
你可能没有症状，直到结石沿着管道(输尿管)移动，尿液通过输尿管排入膀胱。当这种情况发生时，结石会阻止尿液从肾脏流出。
The main symptom is severe pain that starts and stops suddenly:
Pain may be felt in the belly area or side of the back.
Pain may move to the groin area (腹股沟groin pain), testicles (睾丸testicle pain) in men, and labia (阴唇vaginal pain) in women. (from pennmedicine.org)
主要症状是突然开始和停止的剧烈疼痛:
腹部或背部两侧可能会感到疼痛。
疼痛可能会转移到腹股沟区域(腹股沟疼痛)，男性的睾丸(睾丸疼痛)和女性的阴唇(阴道疼痛)。
How are kidney stones treated? 如何医治肾结石？
Health care professionals usually treat kidney stones based on their size, location, and what type they are.
医疗保健专业人员通常根据肾结石的大小、位置和类型来治疗肾结石。
Small kidney stones may pass through your urinary tract without treatment. If you’re able to pass a kidney stone, a health care professional may ask you to catch the kidney stone in a special container. A health care professional will send the kidney stone to a lab to find out what type it is. A health care professional may advise you to drink plenty of liquids if you are able to help move a kidney stone along. The health care professional also may prescribe pain medicine.
不经治疗，小肾结石可能会通过泌尿道。如果你能够排出肾结石，医疗保健专业人员可能会要求你把肾结石装在一个特殊的容器里。医疗保健专业人员会把肾结石送到化验室来确定它的类型。如果你能帮助移动肾结石，健康护理专家可能会建议你喝大量的液体。卫生保健专业人员也可能开止痛药。
Larger kidney stones or kidney stones that block your urinary tract or cause great pain may need urgent treatment. If you are vomiting and dehydrated （脱水）, you may need to go to the hospital and get fluids through an IV （静脉注射）.
较大的肾结石或阻塞尿路或引起剧烈疼痛的肾结石可能需要紧急治疗。如果你呕吐和脱水，你可能需要去医院，通过静脉注射补充水分。
The doctor uses a thin viewing tool, called a nephoscope （肾镜）, to locate and remove the kidney stone. The doctor inserts the tool directly into your kidney through a small cut made in your back. For larger kidney stones, the doctor also may use a laser to break the kidney stones into smaller pieces. (niddk.nih.gov)
医生使用一种称为肾镜的薄观察工具来定位并取出肾结石。医生通过在你的背部做一个小切口，将工具直接插入你的肾脏。对于较大的肾结石，医生也可以使用激光将肾结石打碎成更小的碎片。
How can I prevent kidney stones? 如何预防肾结石?
To help prevent future kidney stones, you also need to know what caused your previous kidney stones. Once you know what type of kidney stone you had, a health care professional can help you make changes to your eating, diet, and nutrition to prevent future kidney stones.
为了预防未来的肾结石，你还需要知道是什么导致了你以前的肾结石。一旦你知道你有什么类型的肾结石，健康护理专家可以帮助你改变你的饮食，饮食和营养，以防止未来的肾结石。
Drinking liquids
In most cases, drinking enough liquids each day is the best way to help prevent most types of kidney stones. Drinking enough liquids keeps your urine diluted (稀释）and helps flush away minerals that might form stones.
喝水和饮料
在大多数情况下，每天喝足够的水或饮料是帮助预防大多数类型肾结石的最好方法。喝足够的水或饮料可以稀释尿液，帮助冲走可能形成结石的矿物质。
Though water is best, other liquids such as citrus （柑橘）drinks may also help prevent kidney stones. Some studies show that citrus drinks, such as lemonade （檬水）and orange juice, protect against kidney stones because they contain citrate (柠檬酸盐), which stops crystals from turning into stones.
虽然水是最好的，但其他液体，如柑橘类饮料也有助于预防肾结石。一些研究表明，柑橘类饮料，如柠檬水和橙汁，可以预防肾结石，因为它们含有柠檬酸盐，可以阻止晶体变成结石。
Medicines
If you have had a kidney stone, a health care professional also may prescribe medicines to prevent future kidney stones. Depending on the type of kidney stone you had and what type of medicine the health care professional prescribes, you may have to take the medicine for a few weeks, several months, or longer. ( from niddk.nih.gov)
药物
如果你已经有肾结石，医疗保健专业人员也可能会开一些药物来预防未来的肾结石。根据你所患肾结石的类型和医生给你开的药物类型，你可能需要服药几周、几个月或更长时间。
